Skip to content
Umbrella Aged Care
← All dementia topics

Evidence and sources

Every factual and clinical claim in this section is tied to a named source. This is the full list — 103 trials, systematic reviews, guidelines and Australian regulatory documents — with the topic pages that rely on each one.

How we use these sources

Interventions are graded on the strength of the evidence for the outcome that matters — cognition, behaviour, function or survival — not on mechanism, plausibility or popularity. Well-conducted randomised trials outrank observational studies however large, because people who choose an intervention differ systematically from people who do not, and statistical adjustment cannot fully remove that difference.

Where a finding comes from an observational study, a post-hoc subgroup, a single-arm study or an industry-funded trial, we say so at the point the finding is described rather than in a footnote. Where trials disagree, we describe the disagreement instead of picking the convenient result. Where there is no adequate evidence, we say that too.

Australian regulatory, PBS, TGA and immunisation details are correct as at the review date below and change without much warning. Always confirm current arrangements against the primary source before relying on them clinically.

Last full evidence review: September 2026.

Sources

  1. 1

    Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Dementia in Australia — Residential aged care. (2021–22 ACFI data: 54% of ~242,000 permanent residents had dementia.) View source

    Cited in: Understanding dementia Medicines in dementia Risk reduction and brain health Advanced dementia and end-of-life care Dementia care in your facility

  2. 2

    Dementia Australia. Dementia facts and figures. (Estimated 446,500 Australians living with dementia in 2026.) View source

    Cited in: Understanding dementia Diagnosis and assessment Living well, and supporting families

  3. 3

    Australian Bureau of Statistics. Causes of Death, Australia, 2024 — media release: Dementia is Australia’s leading cause of death (>17,500 deaths; 9.4% of all deaths). View source

    Cited in: Understanding dementia Advanced dementia and end-of-life care

  4. 4

    Livingston G, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the Lancet standing Commission. Lancet. 2024. View source

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Living with dementia

  5. 5

    Baker LD, et al. Structured vs self-guided multidomain lifestyle interventions for global cognitive function: the US POINTER randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2025. View source

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  6. 6

    Ngandu T, et al. A 2 year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015;385:2255–63. View source

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health

  7. 7

    Andrieu S, et al. Effect of long-term omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with or without multidomain intervention on cognitive function in elderly adults with memory complaints (MAPT): a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16:377–89.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Supplements and dementia

  8. 8

    Barnes LL, et al. Trial of the MIND diet for prevention of cognitive decline in older persons. N Engl J Med. 2023;389:602–11.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  9. 9

    Smith AD, et al. Homocysteine-lowering by B vitamins slows the rate of accelerated brain atrophy in mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial (VITACOG). PLoS One. 2010;5:e12244.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  10. 10

    de Jager CA, et al. Cognitive and clinical outcomes of homocysteine-lowering B-vitamin treatment in mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2012;27:592–600.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  11. 11

    Jernerén F, et al. Brain atrophy in cognitively impaired elderly: the importance of long-chain ω-3 fatty acids and B vitamin status in a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;102:215–21.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  12. 12

    Oulhaj A, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid status enhances the prevention of cognitive decline by B vitamins in mild cognitive impairment. J Alzheimers Dis. 2016;50:547–57.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  13. 13

    Kwok T, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of using B vitamins to prevent cognitive decline in older mild cognitive impairment patients. Clin Nutr. 2019.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  14. 14

    Berg J, et al. Efficacy of B vitamin supplementation on global cognitive function in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 2025. (High-certainty evidence of a very small benefit after removing outliers and single-blind studies.)

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  15. 15

    Sydenham E, et al. Omega 3 fatty acid for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  16. 16

    Mulargia R, et al. Exploring the preventive effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation on global cognition: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cognitively unimpaired older adults. Clin Transl Neurosci. 2025. (SMD −0.02, 95% CI −0.07 to 0.04.)

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  17. 17

    Wei BZ, et al. The relationship of omega-3 fatty acids with dementia and cognitive decline: evidence from prospective cohort studies of supplementation, dietary intake, and blood markers. Am J Clin Nutr. 2023.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  18. 18

    Lönnroos E, et al. The effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on the incidence of diagnosed dementia among healthy older adults — the Finnish Vitamin D Trial. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2025.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  19. 19

    Zhang XX, et al. Association of vitamin D levels with risk of cognitive impairment and dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Alzheimers Dis. 2024.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  20. 20

    Baker LD, et al. Effects of cocoa extract and a multivitamin on cognitive function: a randomized clinical trial (COSMOS-Mind). Alzheimers Dement. 2022.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  21. 21

    Yeung LK, et al. Multivitamin supplementation improves memory in older adults: a randomized clinical trial (COSMOS-Web). Am J Clin Nutr. 2023.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  22. 22

    Vyas CM, et al. Effect of multivitamin-mineral supplementation versus placebo on cognitive function: results from the clinic sub-cohort of the COSMOS randomized clinical trial and meta-analysis of three cognitive studies within COSMOS. Am J Clin Nutr. 2023.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  23. 23

    Sachs BC, et al. Impact of multivitamin-mineral and cocoa extract on incidence of mild cognitive impairment and dementia: results from COSMOS-Mind. Alzheimers Dement. 2023.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  24. 24

    Soininen H, et al. 24-month intervention with a specific multinutrient in people with prodromal Alzheimer’s disease (LipiDiDiet): a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16:965–75.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  25. 25

    Soininen H, et al. 36-month LipiDiDiet multinutrient clinical trial in prodromal Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2020.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  26. 26

    DeKosky ST, et al. Ginkgo biloba for prevention of dementia: a randomized controlled trial (GEM). JAMA. 2008;300:2253–62.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  27. 27

    Vellas B, et al. Long-term use of standardised Ginkgo biloba extract for the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease (GuidAge): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11:851–9.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  28. 28

    Snitz BE, et al. Ginkgo biloba for preventing cognitive decline in older adults: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2009;302:2663–70.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  29. 29

    Kryscio RJ, et al. Association of antioxidant supplement use and dementia in the Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease by Vitamin E and Selenium trial (PREADViSE). JAMA Neurol. 2017.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  30. 30

    Farina N, et al. Vitamin E for Alzheimer’s dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  31. 31

    Xu C, et al. The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Nutr. 2024.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  32. 32

    Smith AN, et al. Creatine monohydrate pilot in Alzheimer’s: feasibility, brain creatine, and cognition. Alzheimers Dement (N Y). 2025. (Single-arm, open-label, n=20, 8 weeks — no control group.)

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  33. 33

    Prokopidis K, et al. Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Rev. 2022.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  34. 34

    Aron L, et al. Lithium deficiency and the onset of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature. 2025.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  35. 35

    Gildengers AG, et al. Low-dose lithium for mild cognitive impairment: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol. 2026. (None of six co-primary outcomes met the prespecified significance threshold.)

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  36. 36

    Wu CY, et al. Cognitive and Alzheimer’s disease biomarker effects of oral nicotinamide riboside supplementation in older adults with subjective cognitive decline and mild cognitive impairment. Alzheimers Dement (N Y). 2025.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  37. 37

    Kumari A, et al. Dietary bioactives in Alzheimer’s disease: a critical appraisal of clinical trials and future nutritional strategies. Nutrients. 2026.

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia Supplements and dementia

  38. 38

    Lin FR, et al. Hearing intervention versus health education control to reduce cognitive decline in older adults with hearing loss (ACHIEVE): a multicentre, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet. 2023;402:786–97.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Living with dementia

  39. 39

    Pike JR, et al. Cognitive benefits of hearing intervention vary by risk of cognitive decline: a secondary analysis of the ACHIEVE trial. Alzheimers Dement. 2025.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Living with dementia

  40. 40

    Goman AM, et al. Effects of hearing intervention on falls in older adults: findings from a secondary analysis of the ACHIEVE randomised controlled trial. Lancet Public Health. 2025.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health

  41. 41

    Baker LD, et al. Effects of exercise on cognition and Alzheimer’s biomarkers in a randomized controlled trial of adults with mild cognitive impairment: the EXERT study. Alzheimers Dement. 2025.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health

  42. 42

    Montero-Odasso M, et al. Effects of exercise alone or combined with cognitive training and vitamin D supplementation to improve cognition in adults with mild cognitive impairment (SYNERGIC). JAMA Netw Open. 2023.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Supplements and dementia

  43. 43

    Huang X, et al. Comparative efficacy of various exercise interventions on cognitive function in patients with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Sport Health Sci. 2021.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Living with dementia

  44. 44

    Eyting M, et al. A natural experiment on the effect of herpes zoster vaccination on dementia. Nature. 2025. (Wales; 20% relative reduction in new dementia diagnoses over 7 years.)

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  45. 45

    Pomirchy M, et al. Herpes zoster vaccination and dementia occurrence. JAMA. 2025. (Australian quasi-experiment; 1.8 percentage point absolute reduction over 7.4 years.)

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  46. 46

    Taquet M, et al. The recombinant shingles vaccine is associated with lower risk of dementia. Nat Med. 2024.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  47. 47

    National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance (NCIRS). Zoster (shingles) vaccine: frequently asked questions. View source

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  48. 48

    Watt JA, et al. Comparative efficacy of interventions for aggressive and agitated behaviors in dementia: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2019;171:633–42.

    Cited in: Changed behaviours Dementia care in your facility Nurses & care workers Facility leadership

  49. 49

    Husebo BS, et al. Efficacy of treating pain to reduce behavioural disturbances in residents of nursing homes with dementia: cluster randomised clinical trial. BMJ. 2011;343:d4065.

    Cited in: Changed behaviours Advanced dementia and end-of-life care Family & carers Nurses & care workers GPs & clinicians

  50. 50

    Mok PLH, et al. Multiple adverse outcomes associated with antipsychotic use in people with dementia: population based matched cohort study. BMJ. 2024;385:e076268.

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia Nurses & care workers

  51. 51

    Maust DT, et al. Antipsychotics, other psychotropics, and the risk of death in patients with dementia. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:438–45.

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia

  52. 52

    Choma J, et al. Risk of stroke associated with risperidone in dementia with and without comorbid cardiovascular disease: population-based matched cohort study. Br J Psychiatry. 2025.

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia

  53. 53

    Le HT, et al. Multiple adverse outcomes associated with risperidone in people with dementia: an individual participant data meta-analysis. CNS Drugs. 2026.

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia Nurses & care workers Facility leadership

  54. 54

    Australian Government Department of Health, Disability and Ageing. Restrictive practices in aged care — a last resort. View source

    Cited in: Changed behaviours Medicines in dementia Dementia care in your facility Nurses & care workers GPs & clinicians Facility leadership

  55. 55

    Aged Care Quality and Safety Commission. Strengthened Aged Care Quality Standards (commenced 1 November 2025). View source

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia Dementia care in your facility Living with dementia Facility leadership

  56. 56

    Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme. Changes to treatment phases and authority levels in medicines for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (effective 1 May 2023). View source

    Cited in: Diagnosis and assessment Medicines in dementia

  57. 57

    RACGP newsGP. Lecanemab gains TGA approval for Alzheimer’s treatment (registered 25 September 2025 for mild cognitive impairment and mild dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease). View source

    Cited in: Diagnosis and assessment Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  58. 58

    ABC News. Donanemab approved in Australia for treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (TGA registration, May 2025). View source

    Cited in: Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  59. 59

    Forward with Dementia (Australia). Update on anti-amyloid therapies — not PBS-listed; out-of-pocket cost estimated at $40,000–50,000 per year for the drug, and $80,000–100,000 per year including monitoring; MRI surveillance 3–4 times in the first six months. View source

    Cited in: Diagnosis and assessment Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  60. 60

    Alzheimer Europe. Results of EVOKE and EVOKE+ trials show no effect of oral semaglutide on Alzheimer’s disease progression (n=3,808; reported at CTAD, December 2025). View source

    Cited in: Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  61. 61

    Gao L, et al. Cost-effectiveness of donanemab for early Alzheimer disease in Australia. Med J Aust. 2026. View source

    Cited in: Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  62. 62

    Bezabhe WM, et al. Trends in anticholinergic drug exposure and associated risk factors in older Australian patients with dementia. J Psychiatr Res. 2026. (19.2% of Australian patients with dementia had a mean daily ACB score ≥3 in 2020.)

    Cited in: Diagnosis and assessment Medicines in dementia Dementia care in your facility GPs & clinicians

  63. 63

    Taylor-Rowan M, et al. Anticholinergic deprescribing interventions for reducing risk of cognitive decline or dementia in older adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022.

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia GPs & clinicians

  64. 64

    Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care. Delirium Clinical Care Standard. View source

    Cited in: Understanding dementia Changed behaviours Living with dementia Family & carers Nurses & care workers

  65. 65

    Guideline Adaptation Committee. Clinical Practice Guidelines and Principles of Care for People with Dementia. NHMRC-approved, 2016. An update is in development. View source

    Cited in: Diagnosis and assessment

  66. 66

    Australian Prescriber. Supporting the appropriate use of psychotropic medicines in aged and disability care. View source

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia Dementia care in your facility GPs & clinicians

  67. 67

    Pieper MJC, et al. Effects of a stepwise multidisciplinary intervention for challenging behavior in advanced dementia (STA OP!): a cluster randomized controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016.

    Cited in: Changed behaviours Dementia care in your facility Facility leadership

  68. 68

    Yin Z, et al. Comparative efficacy of multiple non-pharmacological interventions for behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia: a network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Int J Ment Health Nurs. 2023.

    Cited in: Changed behaviours

  69. 69

    Meng X, et al. Comparisons of nonpharmacological caregiver interventions for behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud. 2025.

    Cited in: Changed behaviours Living well, and supporting families

  70. 70

    Riepe MW, et al. Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 is safe and effective in the treatment of mild dementia — a meta-analysis of patient subgroups in randomised controlled trials. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2025. (Manufacturer-sponsored trial data.)

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  71. 71

    Thant PE, et al. The consequences of antipsychotic medication use for people living with dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychiatry. 2026. (Pooled mortality HR 1.32, 95% CI 1.12–1.56.)

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia

  72. 72

    Liao Z, et al. The association between omega-3 supplementation and cognitive decline in older adults. J Prev Alzheimers Dis. 2026. (Observational ADNI analysis reporting faster decline in supplement users — hypothesis-generating only; high risk of confounding by indication.)

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  73. 73

    Australian Dementia Network (ADNeT). Blood-based biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease in primary care. View source

    Cited in: Diagnosis and assessment Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  74. 74

    Manietta C, et al. Algorithm-based pain management for people with dementia in nursing homes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022.

    Cited in: Advanced dementia and end-of-life care Family & carers

  75. 75

    Marshall S, et al. Creatine and cognition in aging: a systematic review of evidence in older adults. Nutr Rev. 2025.

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  76. 76

    Davies N, et al. Enteral tube feeding for people with severe dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021. (No randomised trials exist; 14 non-randomised studies, all at high or very high risk of bias from confounding.)

    Cited in: Advanced dementia and end-of-life care GPs & clinicians

  77. 77

    Teno JM, et al. Feeding tubes and the prevention or healing of pressure ulcers. Arch Intern Med. 2012. (Propensity-matched nursing home cohort: PEG associated with 2.27 times the odds of a new pressure ulcer and reduced healing of existing ulcers.)

    Cited in: Advanced dementia and end-of-life care GPs & clinicians

  78. 78

    Lee YF, et al. The efficacy and safety of tube feeding in advanced dementia patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2020. (12 studies, 5,666 patients; mortality OR 1.79, 95% CI 1.04–3.07.)

    Cited in: Advanced dementia and end-of-life care GPs & clinicians

  79. 79

    van Dyck CH, et al. Lecanemab in early Alzheimer’s disease (CLARITY-AD). N Engl J Med. 2023;388:9–21. (n=1,795; 18-month CDR-SB difference −0.45, 95% CI −0.67 to −0.23; ARIA with oedema or effusion 12.6%; infusion reactions 26.4%.)

    Cited in: Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  80. 80

    Sims JR, et al. Donanemab in early symptomatic Alzheimer disease: the TRAILBLAZER-ALZ 2 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023. (n=1,736; 76-week CDR-SB difference −0.67 in the low/medium tau population; ARIA with oedema or effusion 24.0%; three treatment-related deaths.)

    Cited in: Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  81. 81

    Tariot PN, et al. Chronic divalproex sodium to attenuate agitation and clinical progression of Alzheimer disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011. (n=313; no delay in agitation or psychosis; greater hippocampal and whole-brain volume loss.)

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia

  82. 82

    Fleisher AS, et al. Chronic divalproex sodium use and brain atrophy in Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2011.

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia

  83. 83

    Sandvik R, et al. Impact of a stepwise protocol for treating pain on pain intensity in nursing home patients with dementia: a cluster randomized trial. Eur J Pain. 2014. (Benefit was apparent in the paracetamol group from week 2.)

    Cited in: Changed behaviours Nurses & care workers

  84. 84

    Leng M, et al. Comparative efficacy of non-pharmacological interventions on agitation in people with dementia: a systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud. 2019. (65 randomised trials; massage therapy, animal-assisted intervention and personally tailored intervention ranked highest.)

    Cited in: Changed behaviours Nurses & care workers

  85. 85

    Morris MC, et al. MIND diet slows cognitive decline with aging. Alzheimers Dement. 2015. (Observational; top tertile of adherence equivalent to being 7.5 years younger.)

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health

  86. 86

    Dhana K, et al. Adherence to the MIND diet and longitudinal changes in global cognition: a post-hoc analysis of the MIND trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2026.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  87. 87

    Dhana K, et al. Dietary intervention and cognition across Alzheimer’s disease biomarker levels: the MIND clinical trial. J Alzheimers Dis. 2026.

    Cited in: Risk reduction and brain health Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  88. 88

    Dodge HH, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of Ginkgo biloba for the prevention of cognitive decline. Neurology. 2008. (More ischaemic strokes and transient ischaemic attacks in the ginkgo group, p=0.01.)

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia

  89. 89

    Marra AR, et al. Antibiotic use during end-of-life care: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020. (72 studies; in 48 of them more than half of patients received antibiotics.)

    Cited in: Advanced dementia and end-of-life care

  90. 91

    Schneider JA, et al. Mixed brain pathologies account for most dementia cases in community-dwelling older persons. Neurology. 2007;69:2197–204. (Autopsy series: over half of those with dementia had more than one pathology.) View source

    Cited in: Understanding dementia

  91. 93

    Forlenza OV, et al. Disease-modifying properties of long-term lithium treatment for amnestic mild cognitive impairment: randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;198:351–6. (n=45, 12 months, lithium 0.25–0.5 mmol/L; reduced CSF phosphorylated tau and better ADAS-Cog and attention scores.) View source

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  92. 94

    Forlenza OV, et al. Long-term lithium treatment reduces glucose metabolism in the cerebellum and hippocampus of nondemented older adults: an [18F]FDG-PET study. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2014;5:484–9. (n=19; four years of low-dose lithium was associated with reduced, not increased, hippocampal and cerebellar glucose uptake.) View source

    Cited in: Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  93. 95

    Damiano RF, et al. Revisiting global cognitive and functional state 13 years after a clinical trial of lithium for mild cognitive impairment. Braz J Psychiatry. 2023;45:46–9. (Cross-sectional recall of the 2011 trial cohort; only 36 of 61 traced and 30.5% had died.) View source

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  94. 96

    Kessing LV, et al. Association of lithium in drinking water with the incidence of dementia. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74:1005–10. (73,731 cases, 733,653 controls; non-linear — IRR 0.83 above 15 µg/L but 1.22 at 5.1–10.0 µg/L.) View source

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  95. 97

    Duthie AC, et al. Low-level lithium in drinking water and subsequent risk of dementia: cohort study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2023;38:e5890. (37,597 Scottish participants; no protective association, with a trend to increased risk in women.) View source

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  96. 98

    Akhondzadeh S, et al. A 22-week, multicentre, randomised, double-blind controlled trial of Crocus sativus in the treatment of mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2010;207:637–43. (n=54; saffron 30 mg/day comparable to donepezil 10 mg/day, with less vomiting.) View source

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  97. 99

    Li J, et al. Huperzine A for Alzheimer’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(2):CD005592. (6 trials, 454 patients; apparent benefits across several scales, but only one trial of adequate quality and size — “inadequate evidence to make any recommendation”.) View source

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  98. 100

    Fioravanti M, Yanagi M. Cytidinediphosphocholine (CDP-choline) for cognitive and behavioural disturbances associated with chronic cerebral disorders in the elderly. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(2):CD000269. (14 heterogeneous trials, most 20–30 days, largely vascular cognitive impairment.) View source

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  99. 101

    Feldman HH, et al. Protocol for a seamless phase 2A–2B randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial of benfotiamine in early Alzheimer’s disease (BenfoTeam). PLoS One. 2024;19:e0302998. (406 participants, 72 weeks; protocol only — no efficacy results yet.) View source

    Cited in: Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  100. 102

    Abushakra S, et al. Clinical efficacy, safety and imaging effects of oral valiltramiprosate in APOE ε4/ε4 homozygotes with early Alzheimer’s disease: the phase III APOLLOE4 trial. Drugs. 2025. (n=325; primary ADAS-Cog13 endpoint not met overall, 11% slowing, p=0.607; nominally significant in the prespecified MCI subgroup.)

    Cited in: Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  101. 103

    Kehtari T, et al. From mood to memory: unlocking saffron’s potential in brain health. Cureus. 2025;17:e82924. (Narrative review of the saffron trial literature.) View source

    Cited in: Supplements and dementia Emerging evidence: a clinical appraisal

  102. 92

    Emre M, et al. Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:2509–18. (n=541; moderate improvement on ADAS-cog, with more nausea, vomiting and tremor.) View source

    Cited in: Medicines in dementia

  103. 90

    Detering KM, et al. The impact of advance care planning on end of life care in elderly patients: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2010;340:c1345. (Australian RCT, 309 inpatients aged 80 or more; end-of-life wishes known and followed in 86% vs 30%, with less stress, anxiety and depression in surviving relatives.) View source

    Cited in: Living well, and supporting families

Listing a source is not an endorsement of every conclusion its authors draw, and summarising a trial in one sentence necessarily loses detail — where a finding matters to a decision, read the original. This page is general information reflecting the interpretation of Umbrella Aged Care’s GPs, not individual medical advice.

Enquire about care